Darshana — Paired with Vaisheshika
Nyaya
न्यायदर्शनम् — The science of correct knowledge and valid reasoning. Nyaya established the most rigorous system of logic, epistemology, and debate in the ancient world — right reasoning leads to right knowledge, which leads to liberation.
- Nyaya (न्याय) — meaning 'rule', 'logic', or 'method' — is the school of critical inquiry, epistemology, and logic. It is the Indian tradition of rigorous analytical philosophy.
- Founded by Gautama (also called Akshapada), the Nyaya Sutras (~2nd century BCE) systematise the art of debate, valid reasoning, and the means of right knowledge.
- Nyaya accepts four valid means of knowledge (Pramanas): Pratyaksha (perception), Anumana (inference), Upamana (comparison), and Shabda (testimony of a reliable source).
- Its most distinctive contribution is the theory of Anumana (inference) — a 5-step syllogism (Pancavayava): Pratijna (thesis), Hetu (reason), Udaharana (example), Upanaya (application), Nigamana (conclusion).
- Nyaya is theistic — it provides sophisticated arguments for the existence of Ishvara as the intelligent creator and sustainer of the universe, arguing from design and causality.
- Liberation in Nyaya is the complete cessation of all suffering and rebirth — not a positive bliss, but the soul's return to its pure, attribute-free state, free from all pain.
Founder
Gautama (Akshapada)
~2nd century BCE
Associated with Samaveda
Primary Text
Nyaya Sutras (Gautama)
528 sutras in 5 chapters
Systemises logic, debate, and epistemology; foundation of all Indian logic
Key Concepts
Four Pramanas
Valid sources of knowledge: Pratyaksha (perception), Anumana (inference), Upamana (analogy/comparison), Shabda (reliable verbal testimony). Most other schools are a subset of these four.
Pancavayava Anumana
Five-step inference: Pratijna (hill has fire), Hetu (because it has smoke), Udaharana (like a kitchen — where there is smoke there is fire), Upanaya (the hill has smoke), Nigamana (therefore the hill has fire).
Hetvabhasa
Fallacies of inference — 5 types of invalid reasons: Savyabhichara, Viruddha, Satpratipaksha, Asiddha, Badhita. Nyaya's precise taxonomy of logical errors.
Sixteen Padarthas
16 categories for the philosophical debate manual: Pramana, Prameya, Samsaya, Prayojana, Drishtanta, Siddhanta, Avayava, Tarka, Nirnaya, Vada, Jalpa, Vitanda, Hetvabhasa, Chala, Jati, Nigrahasthana.
Tarka
Hypothetical reasoning — reductio ad absurdum. Used to test whether a thesis leads to contradiction or absurdity.
Key Texts
| Text | Content |
|---|---|
| Nyaya Sutras (Gautama) | 528 sutras in 5 adhyayas. Root text of the school. |
| Nyaya Bhashya (Vatsyayana) | 4th-century commentary — the oldest surviving Nyaya commentary. |
| Nyaya Vartika (Uddyotakara) | 6th-century defence of Nyaya against Buddhist attacks, especially Dignaga. |
| Navya-Nyaya (Gangesa) | New Nyaya of the 12th century — highly technical logic using symbolic representation; dominated Indian philosophy until the 18th century. |
Browse Nyaya Structure
Explore shlokas and subcategories in Nyaya.