Now for the origin of sound.

By the setting in motion of air by the body , at the junction of throat and breast.

The parts which give it audible quality are breast , throat , head , mouth , and nostrils.

When the throat is closed , tone is produced.

When it is opened , breath is produced.

When in an intermediate condition , the h-sound is produced.

Those are the materials of alphabetic sounds.

In vowels and sonant consonants , the emission is sound.

In h and in sonant aspirate mutes , it is h-sound.

In surd consonants , it is breath.

And more of it in the other surd letters than in the simple surd mutes.

In forming the a-vowels , the lips and jaws must not be too nealy approximated , nor too widely separated.

Also in uttering o.

But the lips are more nearly approximated.

In utterin e , they are slightly protracted.

The jaws more nealy approached.

And one touches the borders of the upper back jaws with the edges of the middle of the tongue.

The jaws , also , are more closely approximated , and the tip of the tongue is brought into close proximity to the upper back gums , in r̥ , r̥̄ , and ḷ.

As also , according to some , in anusvāra and svarabhakti.

In the absence of special direction , the tongue is thrust down forward.

The lips are as in the utterance of a.

In the i-vowels , the middle of the tongue is to be approximated to the palate.

Also in e.

In the u-vowels , there is approximation of the lips.

But , in all cases , with an interval of one from the preceding.

The beginning of ai and au is half an a.

Which , in the opinion of some , is uttered with the organs more closed.

Of the former , the rest is one and a half times i.

But , of the latter , u.

anusvāra and the last mutes are nasal.

In the case of the vowels , that is their place of production , to which approximation is made.

That is producing organ , which makes the approsximation.

But in the case of the other letters , that is place of production , where contact is made.

That is producing organ , whereby one makes the contact.

In the k-series , one makes contact with the root of the tongue at the root of the jaws.

In the c-series , with the middle of the tongue , upon the palate.

In the ṭ-series , with the tip to the tongue , rolled back , in the head.

In the t-series , with te tip of the tongue , at the roots of the teeth.

In the p-series , with the two lips.

In y , with the two edges of the middle of the tongue , upon the palate.

In r , with the middle of the tip of the tongue , back of the roots of the teeth.

Also in l , at the roots of the teeth.

In v , with the edges of the lips , along with the teeth.

The spirants , in their order , are produced in the places of the mutes.

But the middle of the producing organ is unclosed.

The throat is place of production of h and visarjanīya.

In the opinion of some authorities , h has the same position as the begiining of the following vowel.

visarjanīya has the same position as the end of the preceding vowel.

The nose-sounds have the nose as their place of production.

Or they are produced by the mouth and nose.

And , in them , the organ of production is as in the series of mutes.

Nasal quality is given by the unclosing of the nose.